Geology of Brazil Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Geology of Brazil - Essay Example The six major groups that constitute the Brazilian population are the Portuguese who colonized Brazil in the 16th century, Africans brought to Brazil as slaves, European, Middle-Eastern, and Japanese and other Asian immigrant groups who settled in Brazil since the mid-19th century. Further, the indigenous people of Tupi and Guarani language stock. â€Å"Although the major European ethnic stock of Brazil was originally Portuguese, subsequent waves of immigration contributed to a diverse ethnic and cultural heritage† (BWHA 2011). Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the geology of Brazil in order to gain an appreciation of the land, history and dynamics of the home country. The Geology of Brazil Brazil is located within the South American Platform with its basement consisting of a highly complex geologic evolution beginning from the Archaean period. The region of Brazil had become completely consolidated â€Å"between the Proterozoic Superior period and the beginning of the Palaeozoic period, with the closing in the Brazilian cycle† (Machado, 2011). ... Brazil Geology: Crystalline Shields and Sedimentary Basins (Machado, 2011)       Crystalline shields    Sedimentary basins    The Crystalline shields and the sedimentary basins of Brazil are clearly demarcated above (Fig.1). The shield of Guyana extends to the north of the basin of Amazonas; â€Å"the shield of the Brazil-central, or Guapore extends to the interior of Brazil and south of that basin, while the Atlantic shield is exposed in the oriental portion reaching the Atlantic border† (Machado, 2011). These shields are exposed in over half the area of Brazil. On that platform in Brazil were developoed three extensive basins with sineclisis character: Amazonas, Paraiba and Parana, which developed by filling spatially with sedimentary and volcanic coverings during stable conditions of ortho-platform originating from Ordovician-Silurian. Additionally, several other smaller basins including coastal basins and other sedimentary areas, occur exposed on the platform. The Carajas region in the Amazon belt of Brazil reveals a number of important features regarding the reactivation of Archaean basement terrains. A general increase in temperature is linked to deformation through time that is consistent with progressive exhumation of the crust. Similar embrittlement sequences are recognized in many other long-lived basement shear zones. Secondly, the regional basement fabrics are steeplyh dipping and trending east to west. Those deformations that followed are wrench-dominated events probably because the foliation orientation favours strike-slip, as opposed to dip-slip reactivation. Thirdly, the location of the younger Cover Assemblage rocks is structurally controlled by strike-slip fault zones. On the other hand, however, faulting entirely post-dates the deposition and does

Dr, Charles R. Drew Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Dr, Charles R. Drew - Essay Example In 1922, he got the opportunity to join the Amherst College. In his time of study at Amherst, Drew received numerous athletic awards. Later after graduating from Amherst College, he took the position of director of athletics and lecturer of chemistry and biology at Morgan State College. He worked at Morgan College for a period of two years, and later joined a medical school using the savings he had made when working as a lecturer (Hoover 837). Drew had chosen Howard University as his first choice, but the University declined to offer him an admission because he did not have two hours of English credits. However, Drew was offered an admission at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, where his credits in English were satisfactory. At McGill University, Drew was elected to Alpha Omega Alpha and acquired a master of surgery together with a doctor of medicine. Later, Drew went for an internship at the Royal Victoria Hospital and then proceeded for internal medicine at the Montreal Genera l Hospital. After one at Montreal, Drew returned to Howard University to work as a lecturer in pathology. While working as a lecturer, he also worked as a resident surgeon at Howard University (Cornwell 612). Achievements and Contributions At Howard, Dr. Numa Adams, a dean at the time Drew was working as a lecturer was developing a clinical faculty of high standards with the main aim of providing accredited graduate residency programs to physicians of black origin. Dr. Adams took interest in Drew and organized for a two year Rockefeller fellowship for Drew. This saw Drew moving to Columbia University, where he was put under the supervision of Dr. Allen Oldfather Whipple. At Columbia University, Drew was assigned the laboratory of Dr. John Scudder and practiced there from 1938-1940. Drew and Dr. Scudder worked together and went on to perfect in the science of extracting plasma from blood. Their perfection in the science of blood transfusion was a major contribution in saving peoplesà ¢â‚¬â„¢ lives during the World War II. The contribution of Drew’s work of blood transfusion during the World War II remains one of the things drew is remembered for throughout the world (Gordon 223). Other contributions of Drew in surgical science included a better understanding of causes of shock and accurate measurement and replacement of fluids, blood, and electrolytes. In his first year of his fellowship, the Columbia University issued a vacancy in the surgical residency program, and Drew was lucky to get the appointment. While, at the surgical resident at Columbia, Drew got permission to attend an annual meeting of the John Andrew clinical society in Tuskegee. The organizer of the annual meeting was John Andrew Memorial Hospital. On his way to the annual meeting, Drew was involved in a road accident near Burlington, NC (Gordon 223). In June 1940, Drew was awarded a doctor of science in medicine by the Columbia University for his thesis titled â€Å"Banked Blood: A study in Blood Preservation†. In the same year, Drew went back to Howard to work as an assistant professor of surgery. In 1939, Drew married Minnie Lenore Robbins and was blessed with Bebe, Charlene, Rhea and Charles. In 1941, Drew got a certification from the American Board of surgery and also received the coveted Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. The medal came as a result of

Effect of Stress on Job Performance

Effect of Stress on Job Performance STRESS AND JOB PERFORMANCE People react to stress in different ways. Some copy much better than others and suffering fewer of the harmful effects of stress. Just as stress differs as a function of the individual, it also differs as a function of ones type of occupation. Some occupations are, of course, inherently more stressful than others. All of the stress-strain-health relationships have an obvious impact on the organization and industry. Both physical and mental illness renders the employee unlit for work, and combine both to lessen the satisfaction obtained from work and reduce job performance and productivity levels. There are various ways that stress symptoms or outcomes are reflected in the workplace. Evidence from a growing body of research suggests that certain individuals, in a variety of occupations, are increasingly exposed to unacceptable levels of job-related stress (Schultz Schultz, 2002). Occupational stress is any discomfort which is felt and perceived at a personal level and triggered by in stances, events or situations that are too intense and frequent in nature so as to exceed a persons coping capabilities and resources to handle them adequately (Malta, 2004) Occupational stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or need of the worker (Sauter and Murphy. 1999). Performance is defined as the outcomes and accomplishments valued by the organization or system that one works in. Each individual is exposed to a range of stressors both at work and in their personal lives which ultimately affect his or her performance. Pressure at work can be positive leading to increased productivity. However, when this pressure becomes excessive it has a negative impact. The individual perceive themselves as being unable to cope and not to possess the necessary skills to combat their stress. Stress is acknowledged to be one of the main causes of absence from work (Mead, 2000). The occupational stressors can be categorized into four major groups. Firstly, the working conditions, including shift and week-end work, inadequate remuneration, hours of work, discrimination and safety at the work environment. Secondly, relationship at work including quality of relationships with peers, subordinates and supervisors. Thirdly, role conflicts and ambiguity including ill-defined role, functions, expectations, and duties. Fourthly, organization structure and climate which includes communication policy and practice, major changes in the workplace, culture of the organization, and lack of participation in decision-making. Another cause is career development including under utilization of skills or failing to reach full potential. Another contributing factor is the nature of the job which might amount to an immense amount of physical and emotional exhaustion (Parikh Taukari, 2004) The main objective of this study is to identify role of different contributing factors of job stress and to investigate level of stress on those factors in the organization. And also to find that how job performance is affected by job stress. There are different factors of job stress i.e. work overload, work under load, supervision role conflicts, career development, physical environment repetitive work, work family conflict and coworkers. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES There is difference in level of occupational stress among the employees of different departments of the organization. High level of stress adversely affects the performance of the employees. STRESS AT WORLKPLACE (OCCUPATIONAL STRESS) In todays changing and competitive work environment stress level is increasing both in WORKERS as well as MANAGERS .As a result of this work stress, more and more managers are showing signs of chronic fatigue and burnout. Research has concluded that stressed out managers are not good for organization and shareholders also .In most case stress reduced efficiency among individuals as well as reduced productivity also. Stress is the problem in amongst all the countries of the world ,irrespective of whether the economy is strong or weak .To know about the actual work stress we should have to know about the behavior of the individuals ,causes of the stress, its consequences and then how it can be reduce . â€Å"Considered from an individual`s points of view stress is our body`s physical, mental and chemical reaction to circumstance that frighten, confuse, endanger or irritate to any person†. If controlled stress, is a friend that strengthens us for the next encounter .if handled poorly, it becomes an enemy which can cause diseases like high blood pressure, ulcer, asthma, and over reactive thyroid. As per the medical explanation of the term â€Å"Stress is the body`s general response to environment situations.† it can lead to Physiological discomfort. Some kind of emotional unhappiness. Strained relationship with other people. In very simple words stress refers to an individual`s reaction to a disturbing factor in the environment. Different discipline and different professional have viewed it differently. Agarwala at 1979 believed that the confusion in definition is primarily due to the fact that the same term is used variously by scholars of different disciplines .Thus, in physic, stress is a force which acts on a body to produce strain. According to Beehr and Newman â€Å"Job stress is a condition arising from the interaction of the people and their jobs, and characterized by changes within people and force them to deviate from their normal functioning.† Stress can be defined as â€Å"Bodys non specific response to any demand made on it. Stress is not by definition synonymous with nervous system tension or anxiety. On one side Stress provides the means to express talents and energies and pursue happiness, on the other side it can also cause exhaustion and illness, either physical or psychological† One of the common accepted views of stress is provided by Selye through THREE STAGE MODEL OF STRESS. He called it General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). Selye defines stress as â€Å"an adoptive response to the external situation that results in physical, physiological, and behavioural deviation for organizational participant.† He has suggested a three stage model and states that when an organism is confronted with a threat the general physiological response occurs in the three stages . Selye said that †¦There can be up to three phases that our resistance levels go through when we are exposed to a stressor. The first is the alarm phase. The bodys resistance to physical damage drops for a short-time. This is so our bodies can prepare to cope with the stressor by using up available energy and normally protective stress hormones. Temporarily some of our defenses against physical damage drop so that our blood pressure increases, blood-sugar rises, muscle tension increases, we breathe faster and deeper and we get a surge of adrenaline-like substances to give us extra physical capabilities should we need them. If the stressor no longer exists the body returns to its normal level of resistance. However if the stressor persists, (we cant fight or flee from it or and this goes beyond his original thinking we are unable to apply counteracting psychosocial resources) our level of resistance increases beyond normal, relaxed levels When our bodies start to run in higher gear. High levels of stress hormones continue to help us cope with the stressor. This is appropriately called the resistance phase. If there is no relief the body can continue for days, weeks, even years until either the stressor is suddenly removed or because it is very energy-consuming our body collapses often with more dangerous and extreme physical reactions. They are the same as in the alarm phase only more intense and more relentless. It is here in this third or exhaustion phase that our health suffers or even death can occur. Our level of resistance to physical disorder, disease and psychological pressure is at its lowest. It is characterized by feelings of lethargy an absence of energy and bodily resources to cope. MEASUREMENT OF ROLE STRESS: In the context of India two measures have been developed by Indian researchers and have been extensively used in research in India. They are given below: ORGANIZATIONAL ROLE STRESS: This instrument developed by Pareek (1983) this instrument based on the key concept t understand the integration of the organization .It is through this role that the individual interacts and gets integrated with the system. An n organization can be defined as system of roles, where role has been defined by the expectations various significant persons, including himself / herself, have from that position. The concept of role and the related concepts of ‘role space and ‘role set have a built- in potential for conflict and stress (Pareek 1999). From the point of view of an individual, two role systems are important: Role Space and Role Set. ROLE SPACE:- Each individual occupies and plays several roles simultaneously. A person can be a son a father a member of a club and so on at the same time. All these roles constitute role space time. All these roles constitute role space. In the center of the role space is the self. Role space is the self. Role space thus can be defending as â€Å"the dynamic inter-relationship between the self various roles an individual occupies.† ROLE SET;- The individual`s role in the organization is defined by the expectations of other significant roles and those of the individual himself .thus the role set is â€Å"the pattern of relationship between the role being considered and other roles. The organization role stress scale consists of 50 items measuring ten different types of organizational role stresses. These roles stress are Following: Inter role distance (IRD):-it is expected when there is a conflict between organizational and non organizational roles. Role stagnation (RS):- it is the feeling of being stuck in same role. Role expectation conflict (REC):- Stress is generated by expectation of different significant persons such as superior , subordinate, and peers ,about the same role and the role occupant`s ambivalence as to whom to please. Role Erosion (RE); Here stress is the function of the role occupant`s feeling that some function which should properly belong to her role are transferred to some other role. Role Overload (RO) ; when the role occupant feels that there are too many expectations from her. Role Isolation (RI); Stress refer to the psychological distance between the occupant role and other roles in the same role set. Personal Inadequacy; It arises when the role occupant feels that he does not have the necessary skills and training for effectively performing the function expected from his role. Self Role Distance (SRD):- When the role the person occupies goes against his self concept. Role Ambiguity (RA):- It refers to the lack of clarity about the expectation of the role. Resource Inadequacy (RIN):- Stress is evident when the role occupant feels that he is not provided with the adequate resources for performing the function expected from his role. SOURCES OF STRESS It has been said that stress result form a misfits between environmental demands and personal adequacies to meet these demands .However, management of stress is not possible unless the individual is aware of the specific source of stress. Stress can be emanating from variety of sources. Pestonjee (1983) has identified three important sectors of life in which stress originates .These are (a) Job and organization (b) Social Factors (c) Inter Psychic sector .The first namely , job and organization, refers to totality of the work environment (task ,atmosphere, colleagues , compensations, policies ,etc.)The social factors refer to the social / culture context of life .It may include religion, caste, language, dress and other factors. The intra psychic sector encompasses those things which are intimate and personal like temperament, values, abilities, and health. It is contended that stresses can originate in any of these sectors or in combinations thereof. Factor intrinsic to the Job: These are related to poor working conditions shift work, long hours, poor technology, travel, risk and danger, work over load. Role in the organization: When a persons role in an organization is clearly defined and understood, and when expectation place upon the individual are also clear and non- conflicting, stress can be kept to a minimum. Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) have identified three critical factors- role ambiguity ,role conflict , and degree of responsibility for others are major source of stress. Relation -ship at work: The working relationship which one has with people working in the same organization can also be a major source of stress. Career Development : A host of issue such as job security , fear of job loss, obsolescence or retirement and numerous performance appraisals can create pressure and strain. Organizational structure climate: just being part of an organization can present threats to a persons sense of freedom and autonomy. It seems that the position in the organization has something to do with stress. However the research evidence its inclusive .some studies have found that position in the organization does make a difference in job stress. Nature of Profession: The research evidence suggests that certain kind of occupations cause greater stress. Than others in a study of comparative degree of stress amongst professionals Mishra(2001)collected data from 144 doctors and 82 nurses drawn from various hospitals , their result show that nurses experience greater stress in their job as compared to doctors. Predispositional stress: The degree of stress seems vary with the personality and predispositional factor. Some individuals experience greater stress than others. Doctors with internal locus of control reported higher organizational stress than the internal . (Kumar 1988) The below chart shows one example of the structure of a department in an organization, indicating typical causes of stress that may effect stress at certain levels in the structure, and particular. Causes that are affecting individuals. Stress is contagious; anyone who is not performing well due to increases the amount of pressure on their colleagues, superiors, and subordinates. SYMPTOMS OF STRESS As stated earlier Stress is caused by or reaction to the external events and bring about changes in our response and our general behavior. The presence of Stress can be estimated by the analysis of certain symptoms an individual shows. These symptoms can be divided into three different categories. They are Feelings ,Behavoiur and pshysological . When the individual experience Stress, one or more of the following symptoms can be exhibited: Feelings The individual becomes anxious about the outcomes and is scared. The person feels that he has got something to loose or something wrong will take place. In an anxious state the person does not want to be corrected or interrupted. He looks out for other areas where he can forget about the stress-causing event for a while. The person becomes irritable and moody. During high level of Stress the individual develops a negative frame of mind and suffers from low self-esteem. The person loses faith in his capabilities and is afraid of the failures. The individual does not have a focused approach and is not able to concentrate and is involved in his own plans and thoughts. Physiological and Behavioral Changes Speech problems. Impulsive Behavior Crying for no apparent reason. Laughing in a high pitch and nervous tone of voice. Grinding of teeth Increasing smoking and use of drugs and alcohol. Being accident-prone Perspiration /sweaty hands Increased heart beat Trembling/Sleeping problems Diarrhea / indigestion / vomiting/ nausea Butterflies in stomach Headaches Premenstrual tension Pain in the neck and or lower back Susceptibility to illness Loss of appetite Nervous ticks Dryness of throat and mouth. Tiring easily or over eating CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS The effect of stress is closely linked to individual personality. The same level of stress affects different people in different ways each person has different ways of coping. Recognizing these personality types means that more focused help can be given. Stress shows itself number of ways. For instance, individual who is experiencing high level of stress may develop high blood pressure, ulcers, irritability, difficulty in making routine decisions, loss of appetite, accident proneness, and the like. These can be subsumed under three categories: Individual consequences Organizational consequence Burnout Individual consequences: Individual consequences of stress are those, which affect the individual directly. Due to this the organization may suffer directly or indirectly, but it is the individual who has to pays for it. Individual consequences of stress are broadly divided into behavioral, psychological and medical. v Behavioral consequences of stress are responses that may harm the person under stress or others. Behaviorally related stress symptoms include changes in productivity, turnover, as well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of alcohol, paid speech, and sleep disorders. v Psychological consequences of stress replace to an individual mental health and well-being from or felling depressed. Job related stress could cause dissatisfaction, infact it has most psychological effect on the individual and lead to tension, anxiety irritability, and boredom. v Medical consequences of stress affect a persons well being. According to a research conducted, it revealed that stress could create changes in metabolism, increase heart and breathing rates, increases blood pressure bring out headaches and induce heart attacks. Organizational consequences: Organizational consequences of stress have direct affect on the organizations. These include decline in performance, withdrawal and negative changes in attitude.  ¯ Decline in performance can translate into poor quality work or a drop in productivity. Promotions and other organizational benefits get affected due to this.  ¯ Withdrawal behavior also can result from stress. Significant form of withdrawal behavior is absenteeism.  ¯ One main affect of employee stress is directly related to attitudes. Job satisfaction, morale and organizational commitment can all suffer, along with motivation to perform at higher levels. Burnout:- A final consequence of stress has implementation for both people and organizations. Burnout is a general feeling of exhaustion that develops when an individual simultaneously experiences too much pressure and few sources of satisfaction. STRESS AND YOUR PERFORMANCE So far, we have seen that stress is a negative experience. We have seen the short-term burnout. The Positive Effects of Pressure Sometimes, however, the pressures and demands that may cause stress can be positive in their effect. One example of this is where sportsmen and women flood their bodies with fight-or-flight adrenaline to power an explosive performance. Another example is where deadlines are used to motivate people who seem bored or unmotivated. We will discuss this briefly here, but throughout the rest of this site we see stress as a problem that needs to be solved. The Negative effect of pressure In most work situations jobs, our stress responses cause our performance to suffer. A calm, rational, controlled and sensitive approach is usually called for in dealing with most difficult problems at work: Our social inter-relationships are just too complex not to be damaged by an aggressive approach, while a passive and withdrawn response to stress means that we can fail to assert our rights when we should. Before we look further at how to manage stress and our performance, it is important to look at the relationship between pressure and performance in a little more detail, first by looking at the idea of the â€Å"Inverted-U†, and second by looking at Flow. This is the ideal state of concentration and focus that brings excellent performance. Pressure Performance – the Inverted U The relationship between pressure and performance is explained in one of the oldest and most important ideas in stress management, the â€Å"Inverted-U† relationship between pressure and performance. The Inverted-U relationship focuses on peoples performance of a task. The left hand side of the graph is easy to explain for pragmatic reasons. When there is very little pressure on us to carry out an important task, there is little incentive for us to focus energy and attention on it. This is particularly the case when there may be other, more urgent, or more interesting, tasks competing for attention. As pressure on us increases, we enter the â€Å"area of best performance†. Here, we are able to focus on the task and perform well – there is enough pressure on us to focus our attention but not so much that it disrupts our performance. The right hand side of the graph is more complex to explain. Negative Thoughts Crowd Our Minds We are all aware that we have a limited short-term memory: If you try to memorize a long list of items, you will not be able to remember more than six or eight items unless you use formal memory techniques. Similarly, although we have huge processing power in our brains, we cannot be conscious of more than a few thoughts at any one time. In fact, in a very real way, we have a limited â€Å"attention capacity†. As we become uncomfortably stressed, distractions, difficulties, anxieties and negative thinking begin to crowd our minds. This is particularly the case where we look at our definition of stress, i.e. that it occurs when a person perceives that â€Å"demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize.† These thoughts compete with performance of the task for our attention capacity. Concentration suffers, and focus narrows as our brain becomes overloaded. As shown in the figure, this is something of a slippery slope: the more our brain is overloaded, the more our performance can suffer. The more our performance suffers, the more new distractions, difficulties, anxieties and negative thoughts crowd our minds. Other research has shown that stress reduces peoples ability to deal with large amounts of information. Both decision-making and creativity are impaired because people are unable to take account of all the information available. This inability accounts for the common observation that highly stressed people will persist in a course of action even when better alternatives are available. It also explains why anxious people perform best when they are put under little additional stress, while calm people may need additional pressure to produce a good performance. Notes on the research behind the Inverted-U: While this is an important and useful idea, peoples evaluations of stress and performance are by necessity subjective. This has made it difficult to prove the ‘Inverted-U idea formally. Also, for ease of explanation, we show a smooth curve here. In reality, different people have different shaped and positioned inverted-Us at different times and in different circumstances. This is all part of â€Å"lifes rich tapestry†. Entering a State of Flow When you are operating in your â€Å"area of best performance†, you are normally able to concentrate, and focus all of your attention on the important task at hand. When you do this without distraction, you often enter what Professor Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi of Chicago University describes as a state of ‘flow. This involves â€Å"being completely involved in an activity for its own sake. The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement, and thought follows inevitably from the previous one, like playing jazz. Your whole being is involved, and youre using your skills to the utmost. You perform at your best in this state because you are able to focus all of your efforts, resources and abilities on the tasks at hand. While you are sufficiently motivated to resist competing temptations, you are not so stressed that anxieties and distractions interfere with clear thought. This is an intensely creative, efficient and satisfying state of mind. It is the state of mind in which, for example, the most persuasive speeches are made, the best software is developed, and the most impressive athletic or artistic performances are delivered. Helping Yourself to Get Into Flow One of the frustrations of management is that managers can feel that they lose the ‘right to these periods of deep concentration when they must be readily available to others, and be able to deal with the constantly changing information, decisions and activities around them. Studies of good managers show that they rarely get more than a few minutes alone without distraction. This alone can be frustrating, and can contribute strongly to managerial stress. In jobs where concentration is a rare commodity, there are various solutions to creating the periods of flow that sustain good performance. Solutions include working from home, or setting aside parts of the day as quiet periods. Another solution might be to delegate the activities that require the greatest levels of concentration, allowing the manager to concentrate on problems as they arise, serving to create a flow of its own. One of the key aims of this site is to help you manage stress so that you can enter this state of flow, and deliver truly excellent performance in your career. MANAGING STRESS IN THE WORK PLACE Every responds to stress in a different way, it is only by understanding the nature of individual responses that you can start fighting stress yourself and others. Reduction or elimination of stress is necessary for psychological and physical well being of an individual. Efficiency in stress management enables the individual to deal or cope with the stressful situations instead of avoidance. Strategies like tie management, body-mind and mind-body relaxation exercise, seeking social support help individual improve their physical and mental resources to deal with stress successfully. Apart from helping employees adopt certain coping strategies to deal with stress providing them with the service of counselor is also useful. Many strategies have been developed to help manage stress in the work place. Some are strategies for individuals, and other is geared toward organizations. Individual coping strategies: Many strategies for helping individuals manage stress have been proposed. Individual coping strategies are used when an employee under stress exhibits undesirable behavior on the jobs such as performance, strained relationship with co-workers, absenteeism alcoholism and the like. Employees under stress require help in overcoming its negative effects. The strategies used are: Exercise: One method by which individual can manage their stress is through exercise. People who exercise regularly are known to less likely to have heart attacks than inactive people are. Research also has suggested that people who exercise regularly feel less tension and stress are more conflict and slow greater optimism. Relaxation: A related method individual can manage stress is relaxation. Copying with stress require adaptation. Proper relaxation is an effective way to adopt. Relaxation can take many forms. One way to relax is to take regular vacations; people can also relax while on the job (i.e. take regular breaks during their normal workday). A popular way of resting is to sit quietly with closed eyes for ten minutes every afternoon. Time management: Time management is an often recommended method for managing stress, the idea is that many daily pressures can be eased or eliminated if a person does a better job of managing time. One popular approach to time management is to make a list, every morning or the thins to be done that day. Then you group the items on the list into three categories: critical activities that must be performed, important activities that should be performed, and optimal or trivial things that can be delegated or postponed, then of more of the important things done every day. ROLE MANAGEMENT: Some what related to time management in which the individual actively works to avoid overload, ambiguity and conflict. SUPPORT GROUPS: This method of managing stress is to develop and maintain support group. A support group is simply a group of family member or friends with whom a person can spend time. Supportive family and friends can help people deal with normal stress on an ongoing basis. Support groups can be particularly useful during times of crisis. BEHAVIORAL SELF-CONTROL: In ultimate analysis, effective management if stress presupposes exercise of self-control on the part of an employee. By consciously analyzing the cause and consequences of their own behavior, the employees can achieve self-control. They can further develop awareness of their own limits of tolerance and learn to anticipate their own responses to various stressful situations. The strategy involves increasing an individuals control over the situations rather than being solely controlled by them. COGNITIVE THERAPY: The cognitive therapy techniques such as Ellis rational emotive model and Meichenbaums cognitive strategy fir modification have been used as an individual strategy for reducing job stress. COUNSELING: Personal counseling help employees understand and appreciate a diverse workforce, the holistic approach adopted by the counselor gives him a comprehensive view of the employee as client and enable him to deal the issues of work related problems in a larger context with his awareness of the inter-relationship among problems in adjustment with self, other and environment and that a work concern will effect personal life and vice-versa, the employee would receive help regarding the problem in all life. One of the advantage of the individual interventions is the individual can use these skills to improve the quality of life in offer domains like family, social support and self, thus reducing the negative carry of experiences in these domains into the work life which might effect his occupation mental health. ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES: The most effective way of managing stress calls for adopting stressors and prevent occurrence of potential stressors. Two basic organizational strategies for helping employees manage stress are institutional programs and collateral programs. Work Design Stress Management programs Work schedules Health promotions programs Culture Other programs Supervision Institutional programs: Institutional programs for managing stress are undertaken to established organizational mechanism Effect of Stress on Job Performance Effect of Stress on Job Performance STRESS AND JOB PERFORMANCE People react to stress in different ways. Some copy much better than others and suffering fewer of the harmful effects of stress. Just as stress differs as a function of the individual, it also differs as a function of ones type of occupation. Some occupations are, of course, inherently more stressful than others. All of the stress-strain-health relationships have an obvious impact on the organization and industry. Both physical and mental illness renders the employee unlit for work, and combine both to lessen the satisfaction obtained from work and reduce job performance and productivity levels. There are various ways that stress symptoms or outcomes are reflected in the workplace. Evidence from a growing body of research suggests that certain individuals, in a variety of occupations, are increasingly exposed to unacceptable levels of job-related stress (Schultz Schultz, 2002). Occupational stress is any discomfort which is felt and perceived at a personal level and triggered by in stances, events or situations that are too intense and frequent in nature so as to exceed a persons coping capabilities and resources to handle them adequately (Malta, 2004) Occupational stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or need of the worker (Sauter and Murphy. 1999). Performance is defined as the outcomes and accomplishments valued by the organization or system that one works in. Each individual is exposed to a range of stressors both at work and in their personal lives which ultimately affect his or her performance. Pressure at work can be positive leading to increased productivity. However, when this pressure becomes excessive it has a negative impact. The individual perceive themselves as being unable to cope and not to possess the necessary skills to combat their stress. Stress is acknowledged to be one of the main causes of absence from work (Mead, 2000). The occupational stressors can be categorized into four major groups. Firstly, the working conditions, including shift and week-end work, inadequate remuneration, hours of work, discrimination and safety at the work environment. Secondly, relationship at work including quality of relationships with peers, subordinates and supervisors. Thirdly, role conflicts and ambiguity including ill-defined role, functions, expectations, and duties. Fourthly, organization structure and climate which includes communication policy and practice, major changes in the workplace, culture of the organization, and lack of participation in decision-making. Another cause is career development including under utilization of skills or failing to reach full potential. Another contributing factor is the nature of the job which might amount to an immense amount of physical and emotional exhaustion (Parikh Taukari, 2004) The main objective of this study is to identify role of different contributing factors of job stress and to investigate level of stress on those factors in the organization. And also to find that how job performance is affected by job stress. There are different factors of job stress i.e. work overload, work under load, supervision role conflicts, career development, physical environment repetitive work, work family conflict and coworkers. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES There is difference in level of occupational stress among the employees of different departments of the organization. High level of stress adversely affects the performance of the employees. STRESS AT WORLKPLACE (OCCUPATIONAL STRESS) In todays changing and competitive work environment stress level is increasing both in WORKERS as well as MANAGERS .As a result of this work stress, more and more managers are showing signs of chronic fatigue and burnout. Research has concluded that stressed out managers are not good for organization and shareholders also .In most case stress reduced efficiency among individuals as well as reduced productivity also. Stress is the problem in amongst all the countries of the world ,irrespective of whether the economy is strong or weak .To know about the actual work stress we should have to know about the behavior of the individuals ,causes of the stress, its consequences and then how it can be reduce . â€Å"Considered from an individual`s points of view stress is our body`s physical, mental and chemical reaction to circumstance that frighten, confuse, endanger or irritate to any person†. If controlled stress, is a friend that strengthens us for the next encounter .if handled poorly, it becomes an enemy which can cause diseases like high blood pressure, ulcer, asthma, and over reactive thyroid. As per the medical explanation of the term â€Å"Stress is the body`s general response to environment situations.† it can lead to Physiological discomfort. Some kind of emotional unhappiness. Strained relationship with other people. In very simple words stress refers to an individual`s reaction to a disturbing factor in the environment. Different discipline and different professional have viewed it differently. Agarwala at 1979 believed that the confusion in definition is primarily due to the fact that the same term is used variously by scholars of different disciplines .Thus, in physic, stress is a force which acts on a body to produce strain. According to Beehr and Newman â€Å"Job stress is a condition arising from the interaction of the people and their jobs, and characterized by changes within people and force them to deviate from their normal functioning.† Stress can be defined as â€Å"Bodys non specific response to any demand made on it. Stress is not by definition synonymous with nervous system tension or anxiety. On one side Stress provides the means to express talents and energies and pursue happiness, on the other side it can also cause exhaustion and illness, either physical or psychological† One of the common accepted views of stress is provided by Selye through THREE STAGE MODEL OF STRESS. He called it General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). Selye defines stress as â€Å"an adoptive response to the external situation that results in physical, physiological, and behavioural deviation for organizational participant.† He has suggested a three stage model and states that when an organism is confronted with a threat the general physiological response occurs in the three stages . Selye said that †¦There can be up to three phases that our resistance levels go through when we are exposed to a stressor. The first is the alarm phase. The bodys resistance to physical damage drops for a short-time. This is so our bodies can prepare to cope with the stressor by using up available energy and normally protective stress hormones. Temporarily some of our defenses against physical damage drop so that our blood pressure increases, blood-sugar rises, muscle tension increases, we breathe faster and deeper and we get a surge of adrenaline-like substances to give us extra physical capabilities should we need them. If the stressor no longer exists the body returns to its normal level of resistance. However if the stressor persists, (we cant fight or flee from it or and this goes beyond his original thinking we are unable to apply counteracting psychosocial resources) our level of resistance increases beyond normal, relaxed levels When our bodies start to run in higher gear. High levels of stress hormones continue to help us cope with the stressor. This is appropriately called the resistance phase. If there is no relief the body can continue for days, weeks, even years until either the stressor is suddenly removed or because it is very energy-consuming our body collapses often with more dangerous and extreme physical reactions. They are the same as in the alarm phase only more intense and more relentless. It is here in this third or exhaustion phase that our health suffers or even death can occur. Our level of resistance to physical disorder, disease and psychological pressure is at its lowest. It is characterized by feelings of lethargy an absence of energy and bodily resources to cope. MEASUREMENT OF ROLE STRESS: In the context of India two measures have been developed by Indian researchers and have been extensively used in research in India. They are given below: ORGANIZATIONAL ROLE STRESS: This instrument developed by Pareek (1983) this instrument based on the key concept t understand the integration of the organization .It is through this role that the individual interacts and gets integrated with the system. An n organization can be defined as system of roles, where role has been defined by the expectations various significant persons, including himself / herself, have from that position. The concept of role and the related concepts of ‘role space and ‘role set have a built- in potential for conflict and stress (Pareek 1999). From the point of view of an individual, two role systems are important: Role Space and Role Set. ROLE SPACE:- Each individual occupies and plays several roles simultaneously. A person can be a son a father a member of a club and so on at the same time. All these roles constitute role space time. All these roles constitute role space. In the center of the role space is the self. Role space is the self. Role space thus can be defending as â€Å"the dynamic inter-relationship between the self various roles an individual occupies.† ROLE SET;- The individual`s role in the organization is defined by the expectations of other significant roles and those of the individual himself .thus the role set is â€Å"the pattern of relationship between the role being considered and other roles. The organization role stress scale consists of 50 items measuring ten different types of organizational role stresses. These roles stress are Following: Inter role distance (IRD):-it is expected when there is a conflict between organizational and non organizational roles. Role stagnation (RS):- it is the feeling of being stuck in same role. Role expectation conflict (REC):- Stress is generated by expectation of different significant persons such as superior , subordinate, and peers ,about the same role and the role occupant`s ambivalence as to whom to please. Role Erosion (RE); Here stress is the function of the role occupant`s feeling that some function which should properly belong to her role are transferred to some other role. Role Overload (RO) ; when the role occupant feels that there are too many expectations from her. Role Isolation (RI); Stress refer to the psychological distance between the occupant role and other roles in the same role set. Personal Inadequacy; It arises when the role occupant feels that he does not have the necessary skills and training for effectively performing the function expected from his role. Self Role Distance (SRD):- When the role the person occupies goes against his self concept. Role Ambiguity (RA):- It refers to the lack of clarity about the expectation of the role. Resource Inadequacy (RIN):- Stress is evident when the role occupant feels that he is not provided with the adequate resources for performing the function expected from his role. SOURCES OF STRESS It has been said that stress result form a misfits between environmental demands and personal adequacies to meet these demands .However, management of stress is not possible unless the individual is aware of the specific source of stress. Stress can be emanating from variety of sources. Pestonjee (1983) has identified three important sectors of life in which stress originates .These are (a) Job and organization (b) Social Factors (c) Inter Psychic sector .The first namely , job and organization, refers to totality of the work environment (task ,atmosphere, colleagues , compensations, policies ,etc.)The social factors refer to the social / culture context of life .It may include religion, caste, language, dress and other factors. The intra psychic sector encompasses those things which are intimate and personal like temperament, values, abilities, and health. It is contended that stresses can originate in any of these sectors or in combinations thereof. Factor intrinsic to the Job: These are related to poor working conditions shift work, long hours, poor technology, travel, risk and danger, work over load. Role in the organization: When a persons role in an organization is clearly defined and understood, and when expectation place upon the individual are also clear and non- conflicting, stress can be kept to a minimum. Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) have identified three critical factors- role ambiguity ,role conflict , and degree of responsibility for others are major source of stress. Relation -ship at work: The working relationship which one has with people working in the same organization can also be a major source of stress. Career Development : A host of issue such as job security , fear of job loss, obsolescence or retirement and numerous performance appraisals can create pressure and strain. Organizational structure climate: just being part of an organization can present threats to a persons sense of freedom and autonomy. It seems that the position in the organization has something to do with stress. However the research evidence its inclusive .some studies have found that position in the organization does make a difference in job stress. Nature of Profession: The research evidence suggests that certain kind of occupations cause greater stress. Than others in a study of comparative degree of stress amongst professionals Mishra(2001)collected data from 144 doctors and 82 nurses drawn from various hospitals , their result show that nurses experience greater stress in their job as compared to doctors. Predispositional stress: The degree of stress seems vary with the personality and predispositional factor. Some individuals experience greater stress than others. Doctors with internal locus of control reported higher organizational stress than the internal . (Kumar 1988) The below chart shows one example of the structure of a department in an organization, indicating typical causes of stress that may effect stress at certain levels in the structure, and particular. Causes that are affecting individuals. Stress is contagious; anyone who is not performing well due to increases the amount of pressure on their colleagues, superiors, and subordinates. SYMPTOMS OF STRESS As stated earlier Stress is caused by or reaction to the external events and bring about changes in our response and our general behavior. The presence of Stress can be estimated by the analysis of certain symptoms an individual shows. These symptoms can be divided into three different categories. They are Feelings ,Behavoiur and pshysological . When the individual experience Stress, one or more of the following symptoms can be exhibited: Feelings The individual becomes anxious about the outcomes and is scared. The person feels that he has got something to loose or something wrong will take place. In an anxious state the person does not want to be corrected or interrupted. He looks out for other areas where he can forget about the stress-causing event for a while. The person becomes irritable and moody. During high level of Stress the individual develops a negative frame of mind and suffers from low self-esteem. The person loses faith in his capabilities and is afraid of the failures. The individual does not have a focused approach and is not able to concentrate and is involved in his own plans and thoughts. Physiological and Behavioral Changes Speech problems. Impulsive Behavior Crying for no apparent reason. Laughing in a high pitch and nervous tone of voice. Grinding of teeth Increasing smoking and use of drugs and alcohol. Being accident-prone Perspiration /sweaty hands Increased heart beat Trembling/Sleeping problems Diarrhea / indigestion / vomiting/ nausea Butterflies in stomach Headaches Premenstrual tension Pain in the neck and or lower back Susceptibility to illness Loss of appetite Nervous ticks Dryness of throat and mouth. Tiring easily or over eating CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS The effect of stress is closely linked to individual personality. The same level of stress affects different people in different ways each person has different ways of coping. Recognizing these personality types means that more focused help can be given. Stress shows itself number of ways. For instance, individual who is experiencing high level of stress may develop high blood pressure, ulcers, irritability, difficulty in making routine decisions, loss of appetite, accident proneness, and the like. These can be subsumed under three categories: Individual consequences Organizational consequence Burnout Individual consequences: Individual consequences of stress are those, which affect the individual directly. Due to this the organization may suffer directly or indirectly, but it is the individual who has to pays for it. Individual consequences of stress are broadly divided into behavioral, psychological and medical. v Behavioral consequences of stress are responses that may harm the person under stress or others. Behaviorally related stress symptoms include changes in productivity, turnover, as well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of alcohol, paid speech, and sleep disorders. v Psychological consequences of stress replace to an individual mental health and well-being from or felling depressed. Job related stress could cause dissatisfaction, infact it has most psychological effect on the individual and lead to tension, anxiety irritability, and boredom. v Medical consequences of stress affect a persons well being. According to a research conducted, it revealed that stress could create changes in metabolism, increase heart and breathing rates, increases blood pressure bring out headaches and induce heart attacks. Organizational consequences: Organizational consequences of stress have direct affect on the organizations. These include decline in performance, withdrawal and negative changes in attitude.  ¯ Decline in performance can translate into poor quality work or a drop in productivity. Promotions and other organizational benefits get affected due to this.  ¯ Withdrawal behavior also can result from stress. Significant form of withdrawal behavior is absenteeism.  ¯ One main affect of employee stress is directly related to attitudes. Job satisfaction, morale and organizational commitment can all suffer, along with motivation to perform at higher levels. Burnout:- A final consequence of stress has implementation for both people and organizations. Burnout is a general feeling of exhaustion that develops when an individual simultaneously experiences too much pressure and few sources of satisfaction. STRESS AND YOUR PERFORMANCE So far, we have seen that stress is a negative experience. We have seen the short-term burnout. The Positive Effects of Pressure Sometimes, however, the pressures and demands that may cause stress can be positive in their effect. One example of this is where sportsmen and women flood their bodies with fight-or-flight adrenaline to power an explosive performance. Another example is where deadlines are used to motivate people who seem bored or unmotivated. We will discuss this briefly here, but throughout the rest of this site we see stress as a problem that needs to be solved. The Negative effect of pressure In most work situations jobs, our stress responses cause our performance to suffer. A calm, rational, controlled and sensitive approach is usually called for in dealing with most difficult problems at work: Our social inter-relationships are just too complex not to be damaged by an aggressive approach, while a passive and withdrawn response to stress means that we can fail to assert our rights when we should. Before we look further at how to manage stress and our performance, it is important to look at the relationship between pressure and performance in a little more detail, first by looking at the idea of the â€Å"Inverted-U†, and second by looking at Flow. This is the ideal state of concentration and focus that brings excellent performance. Pressure Performance – the Inverted U The relationship between pressure and performance is explained in one of the oldest and most important ideas in stress management, the â€Å"Inverted-U† relationship between pressure and performance. The Inverted-U relationship focuses on peoples performance of a task. The left hand side of the graph is easy to explain for pragmatic reasons. When there is very little pressure on us to carry out an important task, there is little incentive for us to focus energy and attention on it. This is particularly the case when there may be other, more urgent, or more interesting, tasks competing for attention. As pressure on us increases, we enter the â€Å"area of best performance†. Here, we are able to focus on the task and perform well – there is enough pressure on us to focus our attention but not so much that it disrupts our performance. The right hand side of the graph is more complex to explain. Negative Thoughts Crowd Our Minds We are all aware that we have a limited short-term memory: If you try to memorize a long list of items, you will not be able to remember more than six or eight items unless you use formal memory techniques. Similarly, although we have huge processing power in our brains, we cannot be conscious of more than a few thoughts at any one time. In fact, in a very real way, we have a limited â€Å"attention capacity†. As we become uncomfortably stressed, distractions, difficulties, anxieties and negative thinking begin to crowd our minds. This is particularly the case where we look at our definition of stress, i.e. that it occurs when a person perceives that â€Å"demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize.† These thoughts compete with performance of the task for our attention capacity. Concentration suffers, and focus narrows as our brain becomes overloaded. As shown in the figure, this is something of a slippery slope: the more our brain is overloaded, the more our performance can suffer. The more our performance suffers, the more new distractions, difficulties, anxieties and negative thoughts crowd our minds. Other research has shown that stress reduces peoples ability to deal with large amounts of information. Both decision-making and creativity are impaired because people are unable to take account of all the information available. This inability accounts for the common observation that highly stressed people will persist in a course of action even when better alternatives are available. It also explains why anxious people perform best when they are put under little additional stress, while calm people may need additional pressure to produce a good performance. Notes on the research behind the Inverted-U: While this is an important and useful idea, peoples evaluations of stress and performance are by necessity subjective. This has made it difficult to prove the ‘Inverted-U idea formally. Also, for ease of explanation, we show a smooth curve here. In reality, different people have different shaped and positioned inverted-Us at different times and in different circumstances. This is all part of â€Å"lifes rich tapestry†. Entering a State of Flow When you are operating in your â€Å"area of best performance†, you are normally able to concentrate, and focus all of your attention on the important task at hand. When you do this without distraction, you often enter what Professor Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi of Chicago University describes as a state of ‘flow. This involves â€Å"being completely involved in an activity for its own sake. The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement, and thought follows inevitably from the previous one, like playing jazz. Your whole being is involved, and youre using your skills to the utmost. You perform at your best in this state because you are able to focus all of your efforts, resources and abilities on the tasks at hand. While you are sufficiently motivated to resist competing temptations, you are not so stressed that anxieties and distractions interfere with clear thought. This is an intensely creative, efficient and satisfying state of mind. It is the state of mind in which, for example, the most persuasive speeches are made, the best software is developed, and the most impressive athletic or artistic performances are delivered. Helping Yourself to Get Into Flow One of the frustrations of management is that managers can feel that they lose the ‘right to these periods of deep concentration when they must be readily available to others, and be able to deal with the constantly changing information, decisions and activities around them. Studies of good managers show that they rarely get more than a few minutes alone without distraction. This alone can be frustrating, and can contribute strongly to managerial stress. In jobs where concentration is a rare commodity, there are various solutions to creating the periods of flow that sustain good performance. Solutions include working from home, or setting aside parts of the day as quiet periods. Another solution might be to delegate the activities that require the greatest levels of concentration, allowing the manager to concentrate on problems as they arise, serving to create a flow of its own. One of the key aims of this site is to help you manage stress so that you can enter this state of flow, and deliver truly excellent performance in your career. MANAGING STRESS IN THE WORK PLACE Every responds to stress in a different way, it is only by understanding the nature of individual responses that you can start fighting stress yourself and others. Reduction or elimination of stress is necessary for psychological and physical well being of an individual. Efficiency in stress management enables the individual to deal or cope with the stressful situations instead of avoidance. Strategies like tie management, body-mind and mind-body relaxation exercise, seeking social support help individual improve their physical and mental resources to deal with stress successfully. Apart from helping employees adopt certain coping strategies to deal with stress providing them with the service of counselor is also useful. Many strategies have been developed to help manage stress in the work place. Some are strategies for individuals, and other is geared toward organizations. Individual coping strategies: Many strategies for helping individuals manage stress have been proposed. Individual coping strategies are used when an employee under stress exhibits undesirable behavior on the jobs such as performance, strained relationship with co-workers, absenteeism alcoholism and the like. Employees under stress require help in overcoming its negative effects. The strategies used are: Exercise: One method by which individual can manage their stress is through exercise. People who exercise regularly are known to less likely to have heart attacks than inactive people are. Research also has suggested that people who exercise regularly feel less tension and stress are more conflict and slow greater optimism. Relaxation: A related method individual can manage stress is relaxation. Copying with stress require adaptation. Proper relaxation is an effective way to adopt. Relaxation can take many forms. One way to relax is to take regular vacations; people can also relax while on the job (i.e. take regular breaks during their normal workday). A popular way of resting is to sit quietly with closed eyes for ten minutes every afternoon. Time management: Time management is an often recommended method for managing stress, the idea is that many daily pressures can be eased or eliminated if a person does a better job of managing time. One popular approach to time management is to make a list, every morning or the thins to be done that day. Then you group the items on the list into three categories: critical activities that must be performed, important activities that should be performed, and optimal or trivial things that can be delegated or postponed, then of more of the important things done every day. ROLE MANAGEMENT: Some what related to time management in which the individual actively works to avoid overload, ambiguity and conflict. SUPPORT GROUPS: This method of managing stress is to develop and maintain support group. A support group is simply a group of family member or friends with whom a person can spend time. Supportive family and friends can help people deal with normal stress on an ongoing basis. Support groups can be particularly useful during times of crisis. BEHAVIORAL SELF-CONTROL: In ultimate analysis, effective management if stress presupposes exercise of self-control on the part of an employee. By consciously analyzing the cause and consequences of their own behavior, the employees can achieve self-control. They can further develop awareness of their own limits of tolerance and learn to anticipate their own responses to various stressful situations. The strategy involves increasing an individuals control over the situations rather than being solely controlled by them. COGNITIVE THERAPY: The cognitive therapy techniques such as Ellis rational emotive model and Meichenbaums cognitive strategy fir modification have been used as an individual strategy for reducing job stress. COUNSELING: Personal counseling help employees understand and appreciate a diverse workforce, the holistic approach adopted by the counselor gives him a comprehensive view of the employee as client and enable him to deal the issues of work related problems in a larger context with his awareness of the inter-relationship among problems in adjustment with self, other and environment and that a work concern will effect personal life and vice-versa, the employee would receive help regarding the problem in all life. One of the advantage of the individual interventions is the individual can use these skills to improve the quality of life in offer domains like family, social support and self, thus reducing the negative carry of experiences in these domains into the work life which might effect his occupation mental health. ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES: The most effective way of managing stress calls for adopting stressors and prevent occurrence of potential stressors. Two basic organizational strategies for helping employees manage stress are institutional programs and collateral programs. Work Design Stress Management programs Work schedules Health promotions programs Culture Other programs Supervision Institutional programs: Institutional programs for managing stress are undertaken to established organizational mechanism

A Closer Look At Classical Conditioning Essay -- Classical Conditionin

Classical conditioning is a part of everyday life, and it has been around for as long as living organism have been around. Most people have no idea that classical conditioning occurs on a daily basis. It can happen anywhere, our homes simply watching TV, or being outside in the public. Classical conditioning is a way of learning that happens when two stimuli are presented together, which then become associated with each other. Classical conditioning was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov, and it is so closely associated to him that it is sometimes even called Pavlovian Conditioning. Classical conditioning was later reinforced by John Watson with the â€Å"Little Albert† experiment, and recently with the Cockroach experiment by Makoto Mizunami and Hidehiro Watanabe . Classical conditioning does not only affects humans, it affects all animals ranging from the smallest bacteria to dogs and cockroaches. This type of conditioning is also used in marketing and even treating phobias. Classical conditioning is a type of conditioning that links two stimuli together to produce a new response. Classical conditioning has three stages. The first step, before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) makes an unconditioned response (UCR). This means that there is a stimulus that produces a response, usually a natural response. One example of this would be is if someone blows into our eye, our eye would close, humans didn't have to learn this response it came by nature. Another example of an unconditioned response would be someone touching a stove and jerking the hand back, or salivation at the sight of food. Stage two, during the conditioning, a new response is presented, the conditioned stimulus (CS). The unconditioned stimulus is tied in ... ...s. It is one of the best treatments for phobias. It is even used by almost all of the best commercials on TV and the internet. References Allen, C. T., & Madden, T. J. (1985). A Closer Look At Classical Conditioning. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(3), 301. McLeod, S. (2008). Classical Conditioning.Simply Psychology. Retrieved November 24, 2013, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html Classical Conditioning. (2010).  - Simply Psychology. Retrieved November 24, 2013, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html Watanabe H, Mizunami M (2007) Pavlov's Cockroach: Classical Conditioning of Salivation in an Insect. PLOS ONE 2(6): e529. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000529 Marks, I. M. (1987). Fears, phobias, and rituals: Panic, anxiety, and their disorders. New York: Oxford University Press.

A “Race and Color” Reading

Othello is one of the greatest tragedies by William Shakespeare. The Socio-Economic setting of the play drives us to ponder over it again and again. Othello was a Moor and had fallen head over heels in love with Desdemona and won her hands in marriage.Being unacquainted with the customs and norms of an alien culture, Othello had to suffer a lot.  Ã‚   What would have happened if Othello were not a Moor but a respected citizen of Venice?Automatically, the socio-economic equation would have changed and Othello might surely have enjoyed an enviable privilege to have a well-planned control over the whole situation. In Othello, we find a black man’s ‘sense of insecurity’, ‘puerility’, ‘eccentricity’ .Iago, the ‘artist in crime’ is a sordid opportunist of the postcolonial era, who insinuates, motivates and plans adeptly to take advantage of the characteristic weaknesses of Othello leading to irremediable frustration and despair t hat act as a stimulus in the murder of Desdemona.In Othello, we find a black man’s ‘sense of insecurity’, ‘puerility’, ‘eccentricity’ .Iago, the ‘artist in crime’ is a sordid opportunist of the postcolonial era, who insinuates, motivates and plans adeptly to take advantage of the characteristic weaknesses of Othello leading to irremediable frustration and despair that act as a stimulus in the murder of Desdemona.  Othello is the Moor white men need for their protection and well-being. Othello comes from a different socio-economic background and is employed by the tense and visibly perturbed Duke :†Valiant Othello, we must straight employ you,/Against the general enemy Ottoman.Written at a time when Negroes were being supplied to Virginia, Shakespeare’s Othello’s spirit glows with noble ancestral memories and critics like Grant White hold that only a civilized and warlike race could produce an Othello.Ot hello has a presence; he can raise the whites like Cassio to higher ranks, he can head an army, he can order two drunken men to sheath weapons, he can, if required, dismiss them for their offence and he is black and belongs to a lower socio-economic strata and after all race and social status mattered at that time.Hence the union of Othello and Desdemona is presented as the mating of animals, with the Moor as the ‘black ram’, a   practitioner of   ‘arts inhibited.’ A white Prospero can use magic openly and boldly and Shakespeare is apologetic to none but King James, while, Othello’s wooing and winning of a white woman is tantamount to the practice of ‘black magic.’Othello, after all, is an employee of the Duke and hails from a questionable background of a Moor who claims to be well-traveled but is reticent on his redoubtable socio-economic background.Can he in any way emulate the social status of Brabantio, whose daughter he marries out of love? Brabantio remembers the ‘wealthy curled darlings’ of his nation and is furious at the thought of his fair daughter against the Moor’s ‘sooty bosom’. Othello, the Moor, can hardly be accepted by the Venetian public as his skin is of black hue and he comes from an alien socio-economic status.  Othello seemed gratified as he had proved to be the right and only choice in the life of Desdemona. Till then, Othello had never been reminded of the fact that he was a Moor whom Desdemona was supposed to be afraid of. Basically, Othello was not a craven fellow, whose spirits could easily dampen on futile grounds. Othello wished not to doubt Desdemona but he never could brook the presence of any other lover in the life of Desdemona, whom he loved to the point of distraction. He blurted out at one point, â€Å"Cassio, I love the; But never more be officer of mine.†Regarding Othello, we come across a myriad points of view. Critics have labeled Othello   as a play of ‘sexual jealousy’ a play of motive and temptations ,so on, so forth. But here we see that Othello being unaware of the socio-economic picture of Venice treads the wrong path and gulps the dangerous bait. He ,like a fool, yields to Iago’s repeated insinuations. If Desdemona would have been a Moor herself , the disaster hardly would have followed.On the contrary, if Othello were not a Moor, his ‘sense of insecurity’ and ‘inferiority complex’ could not get the better of him, on the slightest provocation by Iago. Othello, even in Act III seemed ingenuous , generous easily credulous and firm in reason ,when he says, â€Å"†¦.This not to make me jealous/To say my wife is fair, feeds well,/loves company,†¦. Where virtue is, these are more virtuous.†Being a Moor, he won the love and undivided attention of Desdemona. When Iago crept in between them and strove heart and soul to malign the relationship, Ot hello lent him credulous ears. Didn’t he understand that Iago was keen on creating a rift in their unflinching alliance? Of course, in the subconscious of the protagonist, he made a dent surreptitiously and without Othello’s cognizance.Othello felt perplexed to find that even his truest and unalloyed love could not keep Desdemona ‘loyal’ to him! Was it simply because he was a Moor? Or, did Desdemona have to lose her life to Othello, only because the Black-and-White conflict caught hold of his mind unawares? We hear Othello recounting his shortcomings in a soliloquy in Act III ,Sc iii,lines-263-7: â€Å"Haply for I am black, /And have not those soft parts of conversation/†¦.She’s gone, I am abused.†His distrust lay rooted in himself ,in the society in which he feared himself ‘unaccepted’, though his love had   fully been requited, reciprocated. Why did then ‘uncertainty’ gnaw at his entrails? It was possibly be cause ,Othello could never forget the acrimonious warning of Brabantio: â€Å"Look to her, Moor, if thou hast   eyes to see:/She has deceived her father, and may thee.†

Fast Food Nation Essay

Fast Food Nation, by Eric Schlosser, is a stark and unrelenting look into the fast food industry that has ingrained itself in not only American culture, but in culture around the world. There is almost no place on earth that the golden arches has not entered. Aside from Antarctica, there is a McDonalds on every continent, and the number of countries that have fast food restaurants is growing on a daily basis. Schlosser describes in detail what happens behind the scenes, before the hamburger and fries come wrapped in environmentally safe paper and are consumed by millions of people daily. There are several stories that stick out in my mind. First is the one about a rancher in Colorado. He had resisted the idea of squeezing as many cows in an enclosed area as possible. Instead, he rotates where the cattle eat, what kinds of grasses they eat, and how often they eat it. His ranch was what cattle raising should be. This is in contrast to how a majority of cattle are raised today. They stand in paddocks their whole life where they hardly have the ability to move, and they are fed things that cows aren’t designed to eat ?corn, wheat, chicken parts, and even the leftovers of already slaughtered cattle. Then they are lead up a gangway, into a building where they are first shocked, then hung up by their hooves and have their necks slit, one after another. It harkens back to The Jungle by Upton Sinclair. After one hundred years, the conditions at the meat packing plants have not improved much. It is still the most dangerous job in America. Almost everyone who works there are injured at one point, be it from mechanical smashers or knives that had come too close to their arm. Hundreds of thousands of cattle are slaughtered every day, and that is to keep up with the demand from places like McDonald’s, Burger King, and Wendy’s. It saddened me to read later that the Colorado rancher committed suicide because he could no longer compete with the large cattle-growers and he was going to lose his livelihood. Another thing that stood out was they way these fast food places treat their workers. Their policy of automation has created a whole group of people that do not have to think to do their job. These people ? usually teenagers ? are paid minimum wage to push buttons and do all of the jobs that used to be done by hand. It gains government subsides for training people with no job skills, such as the poor, young, or disabled. The ironic thing is that they have admitted that they don’t want to have to train people. They want the job to be as easy and training-free as possible, due to their want for uniformity. Uniformity seems to be the way of things at McDonald’s ? uniformity and conformity. If you cannot conform to the mold of a McDonald’s worker, they will simply find people who will, and they don’t have to train them all over again, because the job only requires that you know how to push a button or respond to a light or a beep. The last thing that stands out is the amount of contamination that can occur because of the way these animals are slaughtered. One hamburger from Burger King can contain meat from a thousand different cows. If only one of those cows were sick, then the person eating it can get sick. Then you multiply by how many packages of meat or hamburger was processed that could possibly have that one sick animal in it, you have an epidemic. One sick animal can contaminate ? and cause the recall of ? over 400,000 pounds of meat. That’s a lot of meat to have to bring back, and there are countless people who may have already eaten it and gotten sick, or, like the 6-year-old in the book, died. All of these things ? and the whole book in general ? has turned me off of fast food forever I think. I’ll never look at McDonald’s in the same way again. The food is full of grease, fat, and bacteria that could kill. The food also has hundreds of chemicals in it to make it taste the way it should, rather than the way it does. Seems to me that if their food tasted the way it should in the first place, they wouldn’t need chemicals to do the job. The employment practices of the fast food chains also leave a lot to be desired. They are a great part of the reason that people need more than one job to survive. Because they have so many minimum wage jobs ? even managers only make about $10 to $15 an hour. That had become a norm in the US, where people don’t even make a livable wage. There were a few things I didn’t like about either the book or Schlosser himself. First, he was very liberal, and it showed throughout the book. He practically blamed both Bush administrations for every problem laid out in the book, then praised Clinton and his administration to try and stem the tide of the fast food giants. Then there was Schlosser himself. During his speaking engagement at the college, the first thing he said was that he wasn’t going to try to tell anyone not to eat fast food or go to McDonalds’s or Taco Bell or any other fast food restaurant. He then spent an hour trying to do just that. He said that people spend more time looking into buying a house than deciding what goes into our bodies. My first reaction was â€Å"Of course we do! A house costs tens of thousands of dollars, and a burger costs 99 cents. † I know what he meant by it, saying that the burger will be with us for the rest of our lives and will affect our health in both the short and long run, but it’s not seen that way. If we have high cholesterol, we cal take a pill. High blood pressure? There’s a pill for that, too. There are even pills to help people lose weight. The mentality is that we can eat what we want, and there will be a way to reverse it. The bottom line is that I enjoyed the book and I did learn from it. I’m never eating at one of those places again, and not just because the food is terrible. I refuse to support their employment and food acquisition practices. I’m only sorry that it took me 26 years to get to this stage. Hopefully my children won’t support them either.